An electronic calculator is usually a portable electronic device used to perform calculations, from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics.
The first solid state electronic calculator was made in the early 1960s.
The pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, developed by Intel for the Japanese calculator company Busicom. They then become frequently used in the oil industry (oil and gas).
Modern electronic calculators vary: from cheap models, credit cards, to tough desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s (as integrated circuits made size and small cost). By the end of the decade, the price of calculators had been reduced to the point where basic calculators were affordable by most and they became common in schools.
Computer operating systems as early as Unix have incorporated interactive calculator programs such as dc and hoc, and calculator functions are included in almost all personal digital assistant (PDA) device types (storing multiple custom address books and dictionary devices).
In addition to general purpose calculators, some are designed for specific markets. For example, there is a scientific calculator that includes trigonometric and statistical calculations. Some calculators even have the ability to perform computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to create function graphs defined on real lines, or higher-dimensional Euclidean spaces. By 2016, basic calculators cost little, but scientific and graphical models tend to be more expensive.
In 1986, the calculator still represented about 41% of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to calculate information. In 2007, this was reduced to less than 0.05%.
Video Calculator
Design
Input
The electronic calculator contains a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetic operations; some even contain "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller numbers easier to insert. The most basic calculator specifies only one digit or operation on each key; however, in a more specific calculator, buttons can perform multi-functional functions with key combinations.
Output display
Calculators usually have liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) as outputs in place of historical light-emitting diode (LED) displays and fluorescent display (VFD); details are provided in the Technical upgrade section.
Large figures are often used to improve readability; when using the decimal separator (usually a non-comma point), not or otherwise a vulgar fraction. Various symbols for function commands can also be displayed on the screen. Fractions like 1 / 3 are displayed as decimal estimates, for example rounded to 0.33333333 . Also, some fractions (like 1 / 7 , which 0.14285714285714 ; up to 14 important figures) can be difficult to recognize in decimal form; as a result, many scientific calculators are able to work in vulgar fractions or mixed numbers. Memory
The calculator also has the ability to store numbers into computer memory. The basic calculator usually stores only one number at a time; More specific types can store multiple numbers represented in variables. Variables can also be used to build formulas. Some models have the ability to expand the memory capacity to store more numbers; an extended memory address is called an array index.
Resources
The calculator's resources are: batteries, solar cells or primary electricity (for older models), switch on with a switch or button. Some models do not even have turn-off buttons but they provide several ways to delay (for example, not leaving operations for a moment, covering the exposure of a solar cell, or closing the lid). Crank's powerful calculators are also common in the early computer era.
Key layout
The following keys are common to pocket calculators. While the digit setting is standard, the position of the other buttons varies from model to model; illustrations are examples.
Maps Calculator
Working internally
In general, the basic electronic calculator consists of the following components:
- Power source (main power, battery and/or solar cell)
- Keypad (input device) - consists of keys used to enter numbers and function commands (additions, duplicates, square roots, etc.)
- Display panel (output device) - displays numbers, commands, and input results. Liquid crystal display (LCD), fluorescent display (VFDs), and light-emitting diode (LED) displays use seven segments to represent each digit in the base calculator. The advanced calculator can use the dot matrix view.
- The printing calculator, in addition to the display panel, has a printing unit that prints the ink result to a paper roll, using the printing mechanism.
- Processor chip (microprocessor or central processing unit).
The clock rate of the processor chip refers to the frequency at which the central processing unit (CPU) is running. This is used as an indicator of processor speed, and is measured in clock cycles per second or SI hertz (Hz) units. For a basic calculator, the speed can vary from several hundred hertz to the kilohertz range.
Example
A basic explanation of how calculations are performed in a simple four-function calculator:
Other functions are usually performed using repeated addition or subtraction.
Numerical representation
Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in BCD rather than floating-point representation. BCD is common in electronic systems where numerical values ​​are displayed, especially in systems consisting only of digital logic, and do not contain microprocessors. By using BCD, manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This is very similar to the physical reality of the display hardware - the designer may choose to use a series of separate identical segment displays to build a measuring circuit, for example. If numerical quantities are stored and manipulated as pure binaries, interfacing to such screens would require complex circuits. Therefore, in cases where calculations are relatively simple, working with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to and from binary.
The same argument applies when this type of hardware uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, code results are smaller when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since conversions from or to binary representations can be expensive on such limited processors. For this application, some small processors display BCD arithmetic mode, which helps when writing routines that manipulate the amount of BCD.
When the calculator adds functions (such as square roots, or trigonometric functions), software algorithms are required to produce high precision results. Sometimes significant design effort is needed to fit all the desired functions in the limited memory space available on the calculator chip, with acceptable timing calculations.
Calculator compared to computer
The fundamental difference between the calculator and the computer is that the computer can be programmed in a way that allows the program to take different branches according to intermediate results, while the calculator has been designed previously with certain functions (such as addition, multiplication, and logarithm) built in. The difference is not clear: some devices are classified as programmable calculators with programming functions, sometimes with support for programming languages ​​(such as RPL or TI-BASIC).
For example, instead of hardware multipliers, the calculator may implement floating point math with code in read-only memory (ROM), and calculate trigonometric functions with CORDIC algorithms because CORDIC does not require many multiplications. Bits of serial logic design are more common in calculators whereas parallel bit designs dominate general purpose computers, since few series designs minimize chip complexity, but require more clock cycles. This distinction obscures the high-end calculator, which uses computer-related processor chips and embedded system designs, more Z80, MC68000 and ARM architectures, and some special designs for the calculator market.
History
Precursors for electronic calculators
The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations are: bones (used for counting items), gravel, and counting boards, and abacus, known to have been used by Sumerians and Egyptians before 2000 BC. Except for the mechanism of the Antikythera (astronomical device "out of time"), the development of computing tools arrived near the beginning of the 17th century: the geometric-military compass (by Galileo), logarithms and Napier bones (by Napier), and slide rules by Edmund Gunter).
In 1642, the Renaissance saw the invention of a mechanical calculator (by Wilhelm Schickard and decades later Blaise Pascal), a device that is sometimes a bit over-promoted for being able to perform all arithmetic operations with minimal human intervention. The Pascal calculator can add and subtract two numbers directly and thus, if boredom can be borne, multiplied and divided by repetition. Schickard machines, built several decades earlier, employ a clever set of computing tables to facilitate multiplication and division with additional machines as a means to complete this operation. (Because they are different discoveries with different aims, a debate about whether Pascal or Schickard should be credited as an "inventor" of additional machines (or calculators) may be useless.) Schickard and Pascal were followed by Gottfried Leibniz who spent forty years designing a four-operation mechanical calculator, step counter, finding in his leibniz wheel process, but which can not design a fully operational engine. There were also five failed attempts to design the counting hours in the 17th century.
The 18th century saw the arrival of some interesting improvements, first by Poleni with the first fully functional clock and four operation machines, but these machines were almost always one of them. Luigi Torchi invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834: it is also the second major driving force in the world, following James White (1822). It was not until the nineteenth century and the Industrial Revolution that real development began to happen. Although the machine was capable of performing all the arithmetic functions existing prior to the 19th century, the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes during the night of the industrial revolution made the production of large-scale more compact and modern units possible. The Arithmometer, invented in 1820 as a four-operating mechanical calculator, was released for production in 1851 as an additional engine and became the first successful commercial unit; forty years later, in 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold plus several hundred more from two clone arithmometer makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883) and Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in commercial production actually, has sold 100 comptometers.
It was not until 1902 that a familiar push-button user interface was developed, with the introduction of Dalton Addition Machines, developed by James L. Dalton in the United States.
In 1921, Edith Clarke invented the "Clarke calculator", a simple graphical calculator to solve a line equation involving hyperbolic functions. This allows the electrical engineers to simplify the calculations for inductance and capacitance in the electrical transmission line.
The Curta calculator developed in 1948 and, although expensive, became popular because of its portability. This purely mechanical handheld device can add, subtract, multiply and divide. In the early 1970s electronic pocket calculators terminated the manufacture of mechanical calculators, although Curta remained a popular collection item.
Development of electronic calculator
The first mainframe computers, using the first vacuum tubes and then transistors in logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. This technology is to provide a stepping stone for the development of electronic calculators.
The Casio Computers Company, in Japan, released the 14-A Model Calculator in 1957, which is the world's first (relatively) compact electrical calculator. It does not use electronic logic but is based on relay technology, and built into the table.
In October 1961, the world's first electronic desktop calculator, British Bell Punch/Sumlock Comptometer ANITA ( A N ew I nspiration T o A rithmetic/ A ccounting) was announced. This machine uses a vacuum tube, cold cathode tube and Jauhrons in its circuit, with 12 "Nixie" cold-cathode tubes for the screen. Two models are shown, Mk VII for continental Europe and Mk VIII for UK and worldwide, both for delivery from early 1962. Mk VII is a slightly earlier design with a more complex multiplication mode, and soon fell in favor of the simpler Mark VIII. ANITA has a full keyboard, similar to the current mechanical comptometer, a feature unique to it and the Sharp CS-10A which will be among the electronic calculators. ANITA weighs about 33 pounds (15 kg) due to the large tube system. Bell Punch has manufactured a mechanical calculator driven by a key type of comptometer under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", and it was realized in the mid-1950s that the future of the calculator was in electronics. They hired young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on an early British pilot ACE pilot project, to lead the development. ANITA sells well because it is the only electronic desktop calculator available, and silent and fast.
The ANITA tube technology was replaced in June 1963 by the US manufactured Friden EC-130, which features an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch (13 cm) cathode ray tube (CRT), and introduced Reverse Polish Notation (RPN) to the calculator market for $ 2200, which is roughly three times the cost of the current electromechanical calculator. Like Bell Punch, Friden is a manufacturer of mechanical calculators who have decided that the future lies in electronics. In 1964 more electronic calculators of all transistors were introduced: Sharp introduced CS-10A, which weighed 25 kilograms (55 pounds) and cost 500,000 yen ($ 4457.52), and Industria Macchine Elettroniche of Italy introduced the IME 84, additions and display units can be connected so that some people can take advantage of it (but it does not seem at the same time).
There follows a series of electronic calculator models from this and other manufacturers, including Canon, Mathatronics, Olivetti, SCM (Smith-Corona-Marchant), Sony, Toshiba, and Wang. The initial calculator uses hundreds of germanium transistors, which are cheaper than silicon transistors, on some circuit boards. The type of display used is CRT, Nixie cold-cathode tubes, and filament lamps. The memory technology is usually based on memory delay line or magnetic core memory, although Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 seems to have used the initial form of dynamic RAM built from discrete components. There is already a desire for smaller machines and less power-hungry.
Olivetti Programma 101 was introduced in late 1965; it is a stored program machine that can read and write magnetic cards and the results displayed on its built-in printer. Memory, implemented by acoustic delay lines, can be partitioned between program steps, constants, and data registers. Programming allows testing and conditional programs can also be spread by reading from a magnetic card. This is considered to be the first personal computer manufactured by a company (i.e. non-specialist, non-specialist desktop electronic calculator) for personal use). Olivetti Programma 101 won many industry design awards.
Another calculator introduced in 1965 was the Bulgarian ELKA 6521, developed by the Central Institute for Computational Technology and built at the Electronics factory in Sofia. Its name comes from EL the KA lkulator , and weighs about 8 kg (18 lb). This is the world's first calculator that includes a square root function. Later in the same year released ELKA 22 (with luminescent display) and ELKA 25, with built-in printer. Several other models were developed until the first pocket model, ELKA 101, was released in 1974. It was written in Roman writing, and exported to western countries.
The Monroe Epic programmable calculator came on the market in 1967. A large, printing, desk-top unit, with logic towers mounted on the floor, can be programmed to perform many functions such as computers. However, the only branch instruction is an unconditional implicit branch (GOTO) at the end of the operation stack, returning the program to its original instructions. Thus, it is not possible to enter the conditional branch (IF-THEN-ELSE) logic. During this era, the absence of a conditional branch is sometimes used to distinguish calculators that can be programmed from a computer.
The first handheld calculator was a prototype called "Cal Tech", whose development was led by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1967. It can add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and devices the output is masking tape.
1970s to the mid-1980s
Electronic calculators from the mid-1960s were large and heavy desktop machines due to the use of hundreds of transistors on multiple circuit boards with large power consumption requiring AC power supplies. There is a great effort to put the necessary logic for calculators into fewer and fewer integrated circuits (chips) and electronic calculators is one of the cornerstones of semiconductor development. US semiconductor producers lead the world in the development of large-scale semiconductors (LSI), squeezing more functions into individual integrated circuits. This led to an alliance between Japanese calculator manufacturers and US semiconductor companies: Canon Inc. with Texas Instruments, Hayakawa Electric (later renamed Sharp Corporation) with North-American Rockwell Microelectronics (later renamed Rockwell International), Busicom with Mostek and Intel, and General Instruments with Sanyo.
Pocket calculator
In 1970, calculators could be made using only a few low power consumption chips, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. The first portable calculator appeared in Japan in 1970, and was soon marketed worldwide. These include the Sanyo ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", Canon Pocketronic, and QT-8B "micro Compet" Sharp. Canon Pocketronic is the development of the "Cal-Tech" project that started at Texas Instruments in 1965 as a research project to produce a portable calculator. The Pocketronic does not have a traditional look; numerical output on thermal paper tape. As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project, Texas Instruments was granted a major patent on a portable calculator.
Sharp made a great effort in terms of size and power reduction and was introduced in January 1971, Sharp EL-8, also marketed as Facit 1111, which almost became a pocket calculator. It weighs 1.59 pounds (721 grams), has a vacuum fluorescent display, a rechargeable NiCad battery, and initially sells for US $ 395.
However, efforts in the development of integrated circuits culminated in the introduction in early 1971 of the first "chip calculator", MK6010 by Mostek, followed by Texas Instruments by the end of the year. Although these early hand-held calculators are very expensive, advancements in this field of electronics, along with developments in display technology (such as the display of vacuum fluorescent, LEDs, and LCDs), lead in years to the cheap pocket calculators available to all.
In 1971 Pico Electronics. and General Instrument also introduced their first collaboration on IC, a single full-chip IC calculator for the Monroe Royal Digital III calculator. Pico is spinout by five GI design engineers who have vision to make single-chip IC calculator. Pico and GI then achieved great success in the growing handheld calculator market.
The first pocket-sized electronic calculator really is the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY", which was marketed in early 1971. Japanese-made, this is also the first calculator to use LED screens, the first handheld calculator using single integrated circuits (later proclaimed as " calculator on chip "), Mostek MK6010, and the first electronic calculator to run a replaceable battery. Using four AA size cells LE-120A measuring 4.9 with 2.8 x 0.9 inches (124 mm ÃÆ'â € "71 mm ÃÆ'â €" 23 mm).
The first European-made pocket calculator, the DB 800 was made in May 1971 by Digitron in Buje, Croatia (formerly Yugoslavia) with four functions and an eight-digit display and special characters for negative numbers and a warning that the calculation has too many digits to display.
The first US-made pocket calculator, Bowmar 901B (popularly called The Bowmar Brain), measures 5.2 by 3.0 times 1.5 inches (132 mm Æ' 76 mm Æ' " 38 mm), came out in the autumn of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red LED display, for $ 240, while in August 1972, the four-function Sinclair Executive became the first slim pocket calculator that measures 5.4 by 2.2 by 0.35 inches (137.2 mm ÃÆ'â € "55.9 mm? 8.9 mm) and weighs 2.5 ounces (71 grams). It sells for around £ 79 ($ 101.28). By the end of the decade, similar calculators are priced less than Ã, Â £ 5 ($ 6.41).
The first Soviet Union made a pocket-sized calculator, Electronics B3-04 developed in late 1973 and sold in early 1974.
One of the first cheap calculators was Sinclair Cambridge, launched in August 1973. It sold for £ 29.95 ($ 38.4), or Ã, Â £ 5 ($ 6.41) less in kit form. The Sinclair calculator works because they are much cheaper than the competition; However, their design causes the calculation of transcendental functions slow and inaccurate.
The Soviet-first scientific-sized pocket calculator, "B3-18" was completed in late 1975.
In 1973, Texas Instruments (TI) introduced the SR-10, ( SR which signifies slide rules) pocket calculator algebra entry using scientific notation of $ 150. Shortly after SR -11 displays additional keys to include Pi (?). The following year was followed by the SR-50 which added log and trig-fuel functionality to compete with HP-35, and in 1977, the mass-marketed TI-30 still being produced.
In 1978 a new company, Counted Industry emerged that focused on specialized markets. Their first calculator, Loan Arranger (1978) is a pocket calculator that is marketed to the Real Estate industry with programmed functions to simplify the process of calculating payments and future value. In 1985, CI launched a calculator for the construction industry called Master Construction which came programmed with general construction calculations (such as angles, staircases, roof math, pitch, ride, run, and inch fraction conversion). This will be the first in the line of calculators related to construction.
Programmable calculator
The first desktop programmable calculator was produced in the mid-1960s by Mathatronics and Casio (AL-1000). These machines are very heavy and expensive. The first programmed pocket calculator was HP-65, in 1974; it has a capacity of 100 instructions, and can store and retrieve programs with a built-in magnetic card reader. Two years later HP-25C introduced continuous memory , that is, programs and data are stored in CMOS memory during power-off. In 1979, HP released the first alphanumeric , programmable, expanded calculator, HP-41C. It can be expanded with random access memory (RAM, for memory) and read-only memory (ROM, for software) modules, and peripherals such as barcode readers, microcassette and floppy disk drives, paper thermal rollers, and various communication interfaces ( RS-232, HP-IL, HP-IB).
The Soviet programmable first desktop calculator ISKRA 123, powered by the power grid, was released in the early 1970s. The first Soviet pocket battery programmable calculator, Electronics B3-21 , was developed in late 1976 and released in early 1977. The successor of B3-21, Electronics B3-34 is not incompatible with B3-21, even if it keeps Polish upside notation (RPN). Thus B3-34 defines a new set of commands, which is then used in a series of later programmable Soviet calculators. Despite its very limited ability (98 bytes of instruction memory and about 19 addressable stacks and registers), people managed to write all kinds of programs for them, including adventure games and calculus-related function libraries for engineers. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of programs written for these machines, from scientific software and practical businesses, used in real-life office and laboratories, to fun games for children. The MK-52 Electronic Calculator (using the extended command set B3-34, and displays internal EEPROM memory for storing programs and external interfaces for EEPROM and other peripheral cards) is used in the Soviet spacecraft program (for Soyuz TM-7 flight) as a computer backup board.
This series of calculators is also known for a large number of mysterious features that have no counter-intuitive, somewhat similar to "synthetic programming" from HP-41 America, which is exploited by applying normal arithmetic operations to error messages, jumping to a non-existent address. and other methods. A number of respected monthly publications, including the popular science magazine Nauka i Zhizn , ????????? , Science and Life ), displaying custom columns dedicated to optimization methods for calculator programmers and updates on undocumented features for hackers, which grew into an entire ubiquitous esoteric science, named "yeggogology" ("??????????? "). The error message on the calculator appears as a Russian word "YEGGOG" ("?????") which, not surprisingly, is translated to "Error".
Similar hacker cultures in the United States revolve around HP-41, which is also well known for a large number of undocumented and much more powerful features than B3-34.
Technical upgrade
Through the 1970s handheld electronic calculators have developed rapidly. Red and blue/green LEDs show the fluorescent vacuum consumes a lot of power and the calculator either has a short battery life (often measured in hours, making it a common rechargeable nickel-cadmium battery) or large so they can pick up bigger, higher capacity battery. In the early 1970s liquid crystal display (LCD) was still in its early stages and there was a big concern that they only had a short operating period. Busicom introduced the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY" calculator, the first pocket-sized calculator and the first with the LED screen, and announced Busicom LC with the LCD. However, there is a problem with this display and the calculator never goes on sale. The first successful calculator with LCD was manufactured by Rockwell International and was sold starting in 1972 by another company with names like: Dataking LC-800 Harden Ibino 086 Lloyds 100 , Prismatic 500 (aka P500 ), Quick Data > Rapidman 1208LC . LCD is the earliest form using DSM Dynamic Scattering Mode with numbers that appear as bright against a dark background. To present a high contrast view, this model illuminates the LCD using filament lamps and solid plastic light guides, which negate low power consumption from the screen. These models seem to have been sold for only a year or two.
A more successful set of calculators using the DSM-LCD reflective was launched in 1972 by Sharp Inc. with Sharp EL-805 , which is a sleek pocket calculator. This, and several other similar models, use Sharp's Calculator On Substrate (COS) technology. The expansion of one glass plate required for a liquid crystal display is used as a substrate for installing required chips based on new hybrid technology. COS technology may be too expensive because it is only used in some models before Sharp returns to a conventional circuit board.
In the mid-1970s, the first calculator appeared with field effects, LCD twisted nematic (TN) with dark numbers with a gray background, although the initial one often had a yellow filter on it to cut the damage ultraviolet light. The advantage of LCDs is that they are light reflective light modulators, which require much less power than a light-emitting display such as an LED or VFD. This leads to a first-sized credit card calculator, such as the Casio LC-78 Cardboard in 1978, which can run for months of normal use on the button cells.
There is also an increase in the electronics inside the calculator. All of the calculator logic functions have been compacted into the first "chip on chip" circuitry (IC) in 1971, but this is the leading edge technology of low-cost, low-cost timing and results. Many calculators continued to use two or more ICs, mainly scientific and programmable ones, until the late 1970s.
Power consumption of integrated circuits is also reduced, especially with the introduction of CMOS technology. Appeared in Sharp's "EL-801" in 1972, transistors in ICOS CMOS logic cells use only enough power when they change the state. LED and VFD displays often require additional driver or IC transistors, while LCDs are easier to drive directly by the IC calculator itself.
With this low energy consumption comes the possibility of using solar cells as a power source, realized around 1978 by calculators such as Royal Solar 1 , Sharp EL-8026 , and Teal Photon .
Mass market phase
In the early 1970s, handheld electronic calculators were very expensive, with two or three weeks' wages, and so were luxury goods. The high price is due to their construction which requires a lot of expensive mechanical and electronic components to produce, and production runs that are too small to exploit economies of scale. Many companies see that there is a good profit that can be made in the calculator business with a margin at such a high price. However, the cost of calculators decreases as their components and production methods increase, and the effect of economies of scale is felt.
In 1976, the cost of the cheapest four-function pocket calculator has dropped to a few dollars, about 1/20 of the cost of the previous five years. The result is an affordable pocket calculator, and it is now difficult for manufacturers to benefit from a calculator, which causes many companies to get out of business or shut down. The surviving companies make calculators tend to be people with high output from higher quality calculators, or produce scientific calculators and can be programmed to high specifications.
Mid-1980s to present
The first calculator capable of symbolic computing was the HP-28C, released in 1987. It could, for example, solve symbolic equations symbolically. The first graphic calculator is the Casio fx-7000G released in 1985.
Two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released a more feature-filled calculator during the 1980s and 1990s. At the turn of the millennium, the line between the graphing calculator and the handheld computer is not always clear, as some very sophisticated calculators like TI-89, Voyage 200 and HP-49G can differentiate and integrate functions, solve differential equations, run word processors and PIM software, and connect it with wire or IR to the calculator/other computer.
HP 12c financial calculators are still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still made with some changes. HP 12c displays Polish notation mode of reverse data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of HP 12c, "HP 12c platinum edition" that added more memory, more built-in functionality, and the addition of data entry algebra modes.
Counted Industries competes with HP 12c in mortgage and real estate markets by differentiating key labeling; changing "I", "PV", "FV" into easier labeling terms like "Int", "Term", "Pmt", and not using reverse Polish notation. However, a more successful CI calculator involves a line of construction calculators, which evolved and expanded in the 1990s to the present day. According to Mark Bollman, a mathematician and historian of calculators and professor of mathematics at Albion College, "Master Construction was the first in a long and profitable line of CI construction calculators that took them through the 1980s, 1990s, and to date..
Personal computers often come with a calculator utility program that emulates the appearance and function of the calculator, using a graphical user interface to describe the calculator. One such example is Windows Calculator. Most personal data assistants (PDAs) and smartphones also have such features.
Use in education
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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