Anti-aircraft aircraft or air defense is defined by NATO as "all measures designed to undo or reduce the effectiveness of unfriendly air action." They include land and air weapons systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive actions (eg storm balloons). This can be used to protect the navy, land, and air at any location. However, for most countries the main effort tends to be 'domestic defense'. NATO refers to air air defenses as counter-air and naval air defense as anti-aircraft wars . Missile defense is an extension of air defense as well as initiatives to adjust air defense for the task of intercepting any projectiles in flight.
In some countries, such as Britain and Germany during the Second World War, the Soviet Union, NATO, and the United States, air-based air defense and ground defense aircraft have been under integrated command and control. However, while overall air defense may be for domestic defense including military facilities, troops on the ground, wherever they are, always use their own air defense capabilities in case of air threats. Surface-based air defense capabilities can also be deployed offensively to reject the use of air space for opponents.
Until the 1950s, firing ballistic firearms ranging from 20 mm to 150 mm was a standard weapon; missiles then become dominant, except at very short distances (such as with a melee weapon system, which usually uses autocannons to spin or, in very modern systems, air-to-air adaptations from close-range air-to-air missiles).
Video Anti-aircraft warfare
Terminology
The term air defense was probably first used by the British when the United Kingdom Air Defense (ADGB) was created as a Royal Air Force order in 1925. However, the arrangement in England is also called 'anti-aircraft', abbreviated as < b> AA , a term that remained generally used in the 1950s. After the First World War it sometimes started with 'Light' or 'Heavy' (LAA or HAA) to classify weapons or units. Nickname for anti-aircraft weapons including AA , AAA or triple-A , short for anti-aircraft artillery ; " ack-ack " (from the spelling alphabet used by the UK for voice transmission "AA"); and archie (the English word WWI may have been created by Amyas Borton, and is believed to have originated from the Royal Flying Corps, from the musical comedy line of George Robey "Archibald, of course not!").
NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) as "action taken to maintain maritime power against attacks by air guns launched from aircraft, ships, submarines, and ground-based sites." In some soldiers, the term Air Defense All-Arms (AAAD) is used for air defense by non-specialist forces. Other terms of the late 20th century include GBAD (Ground Based AD) with related terms SHORAD (Short Range AD) and MANPADS ("Man Portable AD Systems": usually shoulder - launch missiles). Anti-aircraft missiles are called surface-to-air missiles, abbreviated and pronounced "SAM" and Surface to Air Guided Weapon (SAGW).
The non-English term for air defense includes German FlaK ( Fl ieger a bwehr K anone, "defense of the cannon plane ", also referred to as Fl ug a bwehr k anone ), from which English flak , and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona (Cyrillic: ?????????????????????), a literal translation of "Anti-air Defense ", abbreviated as PVO . In Russia the AA system is called zenitnye (ie "pointing to the zenith") system (weapons, missiles etc.). In France, air defense is called DCA ( D ÃÆ' Â © fense c ontre les a ÃÆ' Â © ronefs , "aÃÆ' Â © ronef" is a generic term for all types of air devices (airplanes, air balloons, balloons, missiles, rockets, etc.)).
The maximum distance at which a weapon or missile can use an airplane is an important figure. However, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, different weapon or missile performance can not be compared. For AA weapons only the rising sections of the trajectory can be used with useful. One of the terms is the "ceiling", the maximum ceiling is the height the projectile will reach if it is fired vertically, is not practically useful in itself as some AA weapons are capable of firing vertically, and the maximum fuse duration may be too short, but potentially useful as a standard for comparing different weapons.
The British adopted an "effective ceiling", which means the height at which the weapon can provide a series of bullets against a moving target; this can be limited by the maximum fuse work time as well as the ability of the gun. In the late 1930s, the English definition was "the altitude at which the target approaches directly at 400 mph (= 643.6 km/h) can be involved for 20 seconds before the gun reaches a height of 70 degrees." However, the effective ceiling for AA heavy weapons is influenced by non-ballistic factors:
- Maximum fuse activation time, this set the maximum time that can be used for flight.
- The ability of a fire control instrument to set the target height at a distance.
- The accuracy of the cyclic rate of fire, the length of the fuse shall be calculated and set to where the target will be on the flight after shooting, to do this means knowing exactly when the round will shoot.
Maps Anti-aircraft warfare
General description
The essence of air defense is to detect enemy planes and destroy them. The critical issue is about targets moving in three-dimensional space; the attack should not only match these three coordinates, but must do so when the target is in that position. This means that the projectile must be guided to reach the target, or directed to the predicted target position at the time the projectile reaches it, taking into account the speed and direction of the targets and projectiles.
Throughout the 20th century, air defense was one of the most rapidly evolving military technology fields, responding to the evolution of aircraft and exploiting possible technologies, notably radar, missiles, and computing (originally computing electromechanical analogs from the 1930s, such as equipment described below). The evolution of air defense includes the area of ​​sensors and control of technical fires, weapons, and command and control. At the beginning of the 20th century this is very primitive or non-existent.
Initially the sensor was an optical and acoustic device developed during World War I and continued into the 1930s, but was quickly replaced by radar, which in turn was added by optronics in the 1980s. Command and control remained primitive until the late 1930s, when the British created an integrated system for ADGB that connects ground air defense from the AA Army Command, although air defense deployed in the field relied on less sophisticated settings. NATO then calls this setting the "air defense environment", which is defined as "a network of ground radar sites and command and control centers in a special theater operation used for tactical control of air defense operations".
The Rules of Engagement is essential to prevent air defense involving friendly or neutral planes. Its use is aided but not governed by IFF (identification of friends or enemies) of electronic devices originally introduced during the Second World War. Although this rule comes from the highest authorities, different rules can be applied to different types of air defense covering the same area at the same time. AAAD usually operates under strict rules.
NATO mentions these rules Weapon Control Orders (WCO), they are:
- No weapons : weapon systems can be enabled at any target that is not recognized as friendly.
- weapon tight : weapon systems may only be activated on targets known as enemies.
- Hold arms : Weapon systems can only be activated to defend themselves or in response to formal orders.
Until the 1950s guns fired ballistic ammunition was a standard weapon; missiles then become dominant, except for a very short range. However, the type of shell or warhead and fuzing and, with missiles, setting the guidelines, varies. Target is not always easy to destroy; however, damaged aircraft may be forced to cancel their missions and, even if they succeed in returning and landing in friendly territory, may not be able to act for days or permanently. Ignoring small arms and smaller machine guns, ground-based air defense weapons have varying caliber from 20 mm to at least 150 mm.
Ground-based air defenses are deployed in several ways:
- Self-defense by ground troops using their organic weapons, AAAD.
- Completes defense, special aid defense elements that accompany armored units or infantry.
- Maintain a point around the main target, such as an important bridge, building or government vessel.
- Air defenses in the area, usually "belt" air defense to provide a barrier, but sometimes the umbrella covers the area. The area may vary in size. They can extend along state borders, such as the Cold War MIM-23 Eagles and Nike belts that cross north-south across Germany, across military maneuver formation areas, or over cities or ports. On land, air defense areas can be used offensively with rapid transit across all current aircraft transit routes.
Air defense has included other elements, although after World War II most of them are not used anymore:
- Tethered balloon balloons to prevent and threaten aircraft below the height of the balloon, where they are susceptible to damaging collisions with steel bolts.
- Spotlight to light the airplane at night for both the shotgun and optical instrument operators. During the World War II spotlight became radar-controlled.
- Large smoke screen made by a large smoke tube on the ground to filter out targets and prevent accurate weapons that lead to planes.
Passive air defenses are defined by NATO as "Passive measures taken for physical defense and protection of personnel, installations and equipment essential to minimize the effectiveness of air and/or missile strikes". This remains an important activity by ground forces and includes camouflage and concealment to avoid detection by reconnaissance aircraft and attackers. Size-like disguise of important buildings was commonplace in World War II. During the Cold War, runways and taxiways from several airfields were painted green.
Organization
While the navy is usually responsible for their own air defenses, at least for ships at sea, the organization's arrangements for ground air defense vary between countries and over time.
The most extreme case is the Soviet Union, and this model may still be followed in some countries: it is a separate service, equivalent to army, navy, or air force. In the Soviet Union, this is called Voyska PVO , and has both fighter planes, separate from the air force, and ground-based systems. It is divided into two arms, PVO Strany, Strategic Air Defense Service responsible for Air Defense of the Homeland, created in 1941 and became independent service in 1954, and PVO SV, Air Defense from the Army. Furthermore, this becomes part of the strength of the air and ground forces respectively.
At the other extreme, the United States Army has a branch of Air Defense Artillery that provides ground air defense both for homeland and soldiers in the field, but is operationally under the Combined Air Component Commander. Many other countries also deploy air defense branches in the army. Other countries, such as Japan or Israel, chose to integrate their air defense systems into their air force.
In Britain and several other troops, a single artillery branch was responsible for both ground and abroad air defense, although there was a responsibility shared with the Royal Navy for the British Isles air defense in World War I. However, during the Second World War the RAF Regiment was formed to protect airfields everywhere, and this includes light air defense. In the subsequent decades of the Cold War, this includes the United States Air Force operating base in the United Kingdom. However, all ground-based air defenses were removed from the jurisdiction of the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 2004. The British Army's Anti-Aircraft Command was dissolved in March 1955, but during the 1960s and 1970s the RAF Combat Command operated the long-haul plane. missile defense to protect major areas of the UK. During World War II, Royal Marines also provided air defense units; officially a part of the defense organization of the naval base, they are handled as an integral part of ground-based air defense commanded by the army.
Basic air defense units are usually batteries with 2 to 12 weapons or missile launchers and fire control elements. These batteries, especially with guns, are commonly used in small areas, although batteries can be separated; this is common for some missile systems. SHORAD missile batteries are often used in certain areas with separate launchers several kilometers. When MANPADS is operated by a specialist, the battery may have several dozen teams that are used separately in small sections; self-propelled air defense weapons can be used in pairs.
Batteries are usually grouped into battalions or equivalents. On the battlefield, light weapons or SHORAD battalions are often assigned to the maneuvering division. Heavier rifles and long-range missiles may be in air defense brigades and under a higher corps or command. Domestic air defenses may have a full military structure. For example, the British Anti-Aircraft Command, commanded by a full British Army generals was part of the ADGB. At its peak in 1941-42, it consisted of three AA corps with 12 AA divisions among them.
History
The earliest use
The use of balloons by the US Army during the American Civil War forced the Confederates to develop their combat methods. This includes the use of artillery, small arms, and saboteurs. They were unsuccessful, but internal politics led the United States Army Balloon Corps to be dissolved amid war. Confederation experimented with balloons as well.
The earliest known use of weapons made for anti-aircraft roles occurred during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. After the disaster at Sedan, Paris was besieged and French troops outside the city started a communication effort through balloons. Gustav Krupp put a modified 1 pound shotgun - Ballonabwehrkanone (Balloon defense gun) or BaK - above the horse carriage for the purpose of shooting down these balloons.
At the beginning of the 20th century balloons, or aircraft, weapons, for land and naval use attracted attention. Various types of ammunition are proposed, high explosives, burners, bullet chains, bullets and shrapnel. The need for some form of tracker or smoke trail is articulated. Fuzing options are also examined, both impact and time type. Installation is generally a pedestal type but can be on a field platform. Trials are being conducted in most countries in Europe, but only Krupp, Erhardt, Vickers Maxim and Schneider have published any information in 1910. Krupp's design includes an adaptation of 65 mm 9-pounder, 75 mm 12 pounds, and even 105 mm guns. Erhardt also has a 12-pounder, while Vickers Maxim offers 3-pounder and 47mm Schneider. The French balloon weapon appeared in 1910, it was 11-pounder but mounted on the vehicle, with a total weight of 2 tons uncontrolled. However, because the balloon moves slowly, the scenery is simple. But the challenge of a moving plane is more quickly recognized.
In 1913, only France and Germany developed field weapons suitable to engage balloons and aircraft and discussed the issue of military organization. The Royal Navy will soon introduce a 3-inch QF and 4-inch QF AA weapon and also has a fast 1-pound piercing "pom-pom" Vickers that can be used in multiple buffers.
The first US anti-aircraft cannon was a 1-pound concept design by Admiral Twining in 1911 to meet the perceived threat from aircraft, which was ultimately used as the basis for the first Navy's first operational anti-aircraft gun: 3/23 caliber pistol.
First World War
On September 30, 1915, Serbian Army troops observed three enemy planes approaching Kragujevac. Soldiers shot them with rifles and machine guns but failed to prevent them from dropping 45 bombs above the city, hitting military installations, railway stations and many others, mostly civilians, targets in the city. During the bombing attack, Radoje Ljutovac fired his cannon into enemy aircraft and managed to shoot down one. It falls in the city and both pilots die of their wounds. The used Ljutovac gun was not designed as an anti-aircraft weapon, it was a small modified Turkish cannon taken during the First Balkan War in 1912. This was the first opportunity in military history that a military plane was shot down with the ground to the ground. fire air.
Britain recognized the need for anti-aircraft capabilities a few weeks before the outbreak of World War I; On July 8, 1914, The New York Times reported that the British government had decided to 'crash into the shores of the British Isles with a series of towers, each armed with two fast pistols with special designs,' while 'complete circle of towers' would be built in around 'naval installations' and' at other vulnerable points. In December 1914, the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNVR) carried AA firearms and floodlights assembled from various sources around nine ports. Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA) was given responsibility for AA defense in the field, using two parts of a motor rifle. The first was formally established in November 1914. Initially they used the QF 1-pounder "pom-pom" (version 37Ã, from Maxim Gun).
All troops immediately deploy AA weapons often based on smaller field pieces, mainly 75 mm and Russia 76.2 mm French, usually only propped on a kind of embankment to get the muzzle pointing to the sky. The British Army adopted the 13-pounder quickly resulting in a new mounting suitable for AA use, 13-pdr QF 6 cwt Mk III was issued in 1915. It remained in service during the war but the 18-gun was housed to take a 13 -pdr shell with cartridges the larger 13-pr QF yield 9 cwt and this proved much more satisfying. However, in general, this ad-hoc solution proved to be useless. With little experience in the role, there is no way to measure the target, range, altitude or speed of difficulty observing their shell explosion relative to the target shooters who proved unable to get their correct fuse settings and mostly explode far below their targets. Exceptions to this rule are weapons that protect spotting balloons, which in this case the altitude can be accurately measured from the length of the cable holding the balloon.
The first problem is ammunition. Before the war it was recognized that ammunition needed to explode in the air. Both high explosive (HE) and shrapnel were used, mostly the first. Airburst fuses either igniferious (based on fuse burning) or mechanical (working hours). Distorted fuses are not suitable for anti-aircraft use. The fuse length is determined by the flight time, but the rate of burning of gunpowder is affected by the height. British pom-poms only have ammunition united. Zeppelin, which is a hydrogen-filled balloon, is a target for burning bullets and the UK introduces this with an air blast fuses, both the front bullet type projections of the burner 'pot' and the flaring baseball flow. The UK also put a tracer into its shell for use at night. Shellfish is also available for some AA weapons, these bursts are used as targets during training.
The German air attack on the British Isles increased in 1915 and the AA effort was deemed ineffective, so a Royal Navy gunman, Admiral Sir Percy Scott, was appointed to make improvements, especially the AA integrated defense for London. Air defense is expanded with more RNVR AA, 75 mm and 3 inch guns, ineffective pom-poms. The 3-inch navy was also adopted by the army, QF 3 inches 20 cwt (76 mm), installation of a new field was introduced in 1916. Since most of the attacks were at night, the spotlights were soon used, and the acoustic detection and location methods were developed. In December 1916 there were 183 AA sections that defended England (mostly by 3-inches), 74 with BEF in France and 10 in the Middle East.
AA cannon is a tough business. The problem is successfully targeting the shell to explode close to its future target position, with a variety of factors affecting the trajectory prediction path. This is called gun-laying deflection, the 'off-set' angle for distance and altitude is set at gunsight and updated as their target moves. In this method when the shot is on the target, the barrel is directed to the target position in the future. Distance and target height determined fuse length. Difficulty increases as airplane performance increases.
The UK handles the first distance measurements, when it is realized that the range is key to producing better fuse settings. This causes High/Range Finder (HRF), the first model is Barr & amp; Stroud UB2, a 2 meter optical coincident rangefinder mounted on a tripod. It measures the distance to the target and the elevation angle, which together gives the aircraft a height. It is a complex instrument and various other methods are also used. The HRF immediately joins the High/Fuse Indicator (HFI), this is indicated by the elevation angle and the aligned line height with the fuse length curve, using the height reported by the HRF operator, the required axis length can be read.
However, the problem of deflection settings - 'off-purpose' - is required to know the rate of change in the target position. Both France and Britain introduced an unsymmetrical device to track targets and produce vertical and horizontal deflection angles. The French Brocq system is electric, the operator enters the target range and displays weapons; it is used with their 75 mm. British director Wilson-Dalby uses a pair of mechanical trackers and tachimetry; the operator enters the fuse length, and the deflection angle is read from the instrument.
At the beginning of World War I, 77 mm has become a standard German weapon, and mounted on a large trajectory that can be easily picked up on the wagon for movement. The 75 mm Krupp rifle is supplied with an optical observation system that enhances their ability. The German Army also adapted a rotating cannon which was later known by Allied riders as "burning onions" of flying shells. The rifle has five barrels which quickly launch a series of 37 mm artillery shells.
When aircraft begin to be used to attack ground targets on the battlefield, AA weapons can not be passed quickly enough on close targets and, relatively few, are not always in the right place (and often unpopular with other forces), so change. positions often. Immediately the troops added various weapons-based machine guns mounted on poles. This short-range weapon proved more deadly, and the "Red Baron" is believed to have been shot down by an anti-aircraft Vickers machine gun. When the war ends, it is clear that improving aircraft capability will require a better way to get targets and aim at them. Nevertheless, a pattern has been set: anti-aircraft warfare will use heavy weapons to attack altitude targets and light weapons for use when aircraft come to lower ground.
Interwar years
World War I showed that the aircraft could be an important part of the battlefield, but in some countries it is the prospect of strategic air strikes that are a major problem, posing threats and opportunities. The experience of four years of air strikes in London by Zeppelins and Gotha G.V bombers has greatly affected the UK and is one if not the main driver to form an independent air force. As their aircraft and engine capabilities increase, it is clear that their role in future wars will be more important as their range and burden of weapons increase. However, in the years immediately after World War I, the prospect of another major war seemed distant, especially in Europe, where the most capable countries were militarily situated, and little funding was available.
Four years of war have witnessed the establishment of a new branch of military activity and technically demanding. Air defense has made great progress, albeit from a very low starting point. However, it is new and often has no influential 'friends' in the competition to share a limited defense budget. Demobilization means that most AA weapons are taken out of service, leaving only the most modern.
However, there are lessons to be learned. Especially the British, who have AA guns in most of the cinemas in action during the day and use them against night raids at home. Furthermore, they have also formed the AA Experimental Section during the war and collected much of the data that were subjected to extensive analysis. As a result, they published, in 1924-1925, two volumes of Gunnery Anti-Aircraft Textbooks. This includes five main recommendations for HAA equipment:
- Ballistic shape shells enhanced by HE filling and mechanical time fuses.
- Higher fire rates are aided by automation.
- The altitude found by long-term optical instruments.
- The fire control is centered on each gun position, which is directed by a tachymetric instrument that combines the facility to apply moment correction for meteorological and wear factors.
- More accurate sound location for the direction of spotlights and provides plots for barrage of shots.
Two assumptions support the British approach to HAA fire; first, the targeted shots are the main method and this is possible by predicting weapon data from target tracking visually and at its altitude. Secondly, that the target will maintain steady speed, speed and height. HAA is to involve targets up to 24,000 feet. The mechanical fuse, contrary to the igniferous, takes time because the speed of powder combustion varies with height, so the fuse length is not a simple function of flight time. Automatic fire ensures a constant fire rate which makes it easier to predict where each shell should be directed individually.
In 1925, the British adopted a new instrument developed by Vickers. This is a mechanical analog computer Predictor AA No. 1. Given the high target, the operator tracks the target and predictions resulting in bearings, quadrant elevation and fuse settings. These are passed electrically to the weapon, where they are displayed in the repeater dial to a 'matching pointer' layer (target data and actual gun data) to lay down the weapon. This electric call repeater system was built on a setting introduced by British coastal artillery in the 1880s, and coastal artillery was the backdrop of many AA officers. Similar systems were adopted in other countries and for example later Sperry devices, designated M3A3 in the US, were also used by the UK as Predictor AA No. 2. The discovery of altitude also increased in size, in England, World War I Barr & amp; Stroud UB 2 (7-foot optical base) is replaced by UB 7 (9-foot optical base) and UB 10 (18-foot optical base, used only on AA static sites). Goertz in Germany and Levallois in France produced a 5 meter instrument. However, in most countries the main effort of HAA weapons until the mid-1930s was improving existing ones, although new designs were on the drawing board.
From the early 1930s, eight countries developed radar; this development was quite advanced in the late 1930s for development work on acoustic devices that put the sounds in general halted, even though the equipment was maintained. Furthermore, in the United Kingdom the Observer Corps volunteers formed in 1925 provide a network of observation posts to report hostile aircraft flying over the UK. Initially the radar was used for airborne surveillance to detect approaching hostile aircraft. However, the German radar WÃÆ'¼rzburg was able to provide suitable data to control AA weapons, and the British AA No 1 Mk 1 GL radar was designed to be used in AA weapon positions.
The Treaty of Versailles prevents Germany from having AA weapons, and for example, Krupps designers join Bofors in Sweden. Some of the World War I weapons were retained and some secret AA training began in the late 1920s. Germany introduced FlaK 18 8.8 cm in 1933, 36 and 37 models followed by various improvements, but the ballistic performance did not change. In the late 1930s 10.5 cm FlaK 38 appeared, immediately followed by 39; It is designed primarily for static sites but has a mobile phone mounting, and the unit has a 220 V 24 kW generator. In 1938 the design started at FlaK 12.8 cm.
The USSR introduced a new 76 mm M1931 in the early 1930s and 85 mm
The UK had successfully tested a new HAA weapon, 3.6 inches, in 1918. In 1928, 3.7 inches became the preferred solution, but it took 6 years to get funding. QF production of 3.7 inches (94 mm) started in 1937; these weapons are used on carriages with field soldiers and weapons that can be transported on fixed installations for static positions. At the same time the Royal Navy adopted a new 4.5-inch (114 mm) rifle in twin towers, adopted by armies in a simplified single-gun mount for static positions, mostly around the port where naval ammunition was available. The performance of the new weapon is limited by the standard fuse No 199, with a 30-second run time, although a new mechanical fuse that delivers 43 seconds is nearing readiness. In 1939 Machine Fuse Setter was introduced to eliminate manual fuse settings.
The US ended World War I with two 3-inch AA weapons and improvements developed during the interwar period. However, in 1924 work began on a static AA 105 mm static mounting gun, but only a few were produced in the mid-1930s because at this time work had begun on a 90 mm AA rifle, with wagons and static hooks capable of being involved. target air, sea and land. The M1 version was approved in 1940. During the 1920s there was some work on the apostate 4.7 inches, but revived in 1937, leading to a new weapon in 1944.
While HAA and related target acquisition and fire control are the main focus of AA efforts, low-level close-range targets persisted and by the mid-1930s became a problem.
Until now the British, at the insistence of the RAF, continued World War I they used machine guns, and introduced twin MG installations for AAAD. Forces are prohibited from considering anything greater than 50 inches. However, in 1935 their trials showed that the minimum effective spin was a 2-lb fused-HE shell. The following year they decided to adopt Bofors 40 mm and 2-pig twin Vickers (40 mm) on a modified naval ridge. Air-cooled bofors are far superior to land use, being much lighter than water-cooled pom-poms, and British Bofors 40 mm production is licensed. Predictor AA No. 3, as Kericon Predictor officially known, was introduced to it.
Bofors 40 mm was available in 1931. By the late 1920s the Swedish Navy had ordered the development of a naval 40-mm naval weapon from the Bofors company. It was lightweight, fast-firing and reliable, and the mobile version of the four-carriage was soon developed. Known only as 40 mm, it was adopted by about 17 different countries before World War II and is still used today in some applications such as on a coast guard frigate.
Rheinmetall in Germany developed 20 mm automatic in 1920 and Oerlikon in Switzerland had obtained a patent for a 20 mm rifle designed in Germany during World War I. Germany introduced FlaK 30 cm fire-fast and later in the decade it was redesigned by Mauser-Werke and to 2 cm FlaK 38. Nevertheless, although 20 mm is better than a machine gun and mounted on a very small trailer makes it easy to move, its effectiveness is limited. Therefore Germany added 3.7 cm. The first, 3.7 cm FlaK 18 developed by Rheinmetall in the early 1930s, was essentially enlarged 2 cm FlaK 30. It was introduced in 1935 and production ceased the following year. The redesigned 3.7 cm rifle 36 FlaK 36 began operating in 1938, also has two-wheeled carriages. However, in the mid-1930s the Luftwaffe realized that there was still a coverage gap between 3.7 cm and 8.8 cm of weapons. They began to develop a 5 cm pistol in four-wheeled carriages.
After World War I, the US Army began to develop 37 mm cannons, made by John M. Browning. It was standardized in 1927 as a T9 AA cannon, but the experiment quickly revealed that it was worthless in the role of the land. However, while the shell is mild (under 2 lbs) it has a good effective ceiling and fires 125 rounds per minute; AA trains were developed and started operating in 1939. 37mm Browning proved to be prone to traffic jams, and was eventually replaced in AA units by Bofors 40 mm . Bofors had attracted the attention of the US Navy, but nothing was obtained before 1939. Also, in 1931, the US Army worked on a mobile anti-aircraft engine mounted behind heavy trucks that had four caliber 30 caliber caliber machines. an optical director. It proved unsuccessful and abandoned.
The Soviet Union also used 37 mm, 37 mm M1939, which appears to have been copied from Bofors 40 mm. 25 mm bofors, essentially 40 mm lowered, were also copied as 25 mm M1939.
During the 1930s, solid fuel rockets were being developed in the Soviet Union and Britain. In Britain his interest was to shoot anti-aircraft, it quickly became clear that guidance would be needed for accuracy. However, rockets, or 'unplayable projectiles' when they are called, can be used for anti-aircraft attacks. A 2 inch rocket using HE or warhead wire barriers was first introduced to handle low-level bombing attacks or dives on smaller targets such as airfields. 3 inches is being developed at the end of the interwar period.
Second World War
AA Polish defense is not suitable for German attacks and the situation is similar in other European countries. A significant AA battle began with the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940. The 3.7 inch HAA was to provide the ground-based AA groundbreaking defense, although initially significant numbers of 3-inch 20-cwt were also used. The Army's Anti-aircraft command, which was under the command of the British Air Defense organization, grew to 12 AA divisions in 3 AA corps. 40-mm bofors enter service in increasing numbers. In addition the RAF regiment was formed in 1941 with responsibility for air defense airfields, eventually with the 40mm Bofors as their main armament. The fixed AA defense, using HAA and LAA, was established by the Army at major overseas places, notably Malta, the Suez Canal and Singapore.
While 3.7 inches is the main HAA weapon in fixed defense and HAA's only weapon moves with the field army, 4.5 inches, manned by artillery, used around the naval port, utilizing the supply of naval ammunition. 4.5 inches in Singapore had the first success in dropping Japanese bombers. Mid-war weapons HAA 5.25 inches began superimposed on some permanent sites around London. This rifle is also used in the dual role of coastal defense/AA position.
The need for German altitude will initially be filled by a 75 mm pistol from Krupp, designed in collaboration with their Swedish counterpart Bofors, but the specification was later changed to require a much higher performance. In response, the Krupp engineers presented the new 88 mm design, FlaK 36. First used in Spain during the Spanish Civil War, the weapon proved to be one of the best anti-aircraft weapons in the world, as well as extremely lethal to light, medium weight tanks, and even early.
After the Dambusters attack in 1943 a completely newly developed system was required to knock down any low-flying airplane with one attack. The first attempt to produce such a system uses a 50 mm pistol, but this proves to be inaccurate and a new 55 mm gun replaces it. The system uses a centralized control system including search and targeting radar, which calculates the destination points for weapons after considering wind and ballistics, and then sends an electric command to a weapon, using hydraulics to steer themselves at high speed. The operator only feeds the weapons and selects the target. This system, modern even by today's standards, is in the final development when the war is over.
The UK has arranged the development of a 40mm Bofors license, and introduced it into the service. It has the power to drop the aircraft of any size, yet light enough to be able to move and easily swing. The pistol became very important to the British war effort so they even produced the film, The Gun , which prompted the workers on the assembly line to work harder. Images of imperial measurements produced by the British were supplied to America that produced their own (unlicensed) copy of 40 mm at the start of the war, moving into licensed production in mid-1941.
However, a service trial shows another problem: that starting and tracking new high speed targets is almost impossible. At short distances, the target area looks relatively large, the trajectory flat and the short flight time, allowing for the correct lead by looking at the tracker. On long distances, the aircraft remains within range of firing for a long time, so the required calculations can be theoretically done with slide rules - though, due to minor errors in the distance causing major errors in shell falling height and detonation time, the exact distance is very important. For the range and speed Bofors uses, there is no pretty good answer.
The solution is automation, in the form of a mechanical computer, Kerrison Predictor. The fixed operator directs it to the target, and Predictor then automatically calculates the exact destination point and displays it as a pointer mounted in the gun. Gun operators just follow the pointer and load the bullets. Kerrison is quite simple, but shows the way to future generations that incorporate radar, first to start and then to tracking. A similar predictor system was introduced by the Germans during the war, also adding radar during the war.
A large number of smaller caliber anti-aircraft weapons systems are available to the German Wehrmacht combined forces, and among them, the 1940 anti-aircraft weapon system based on quadruple-20-mm-autokannon origin of the most commonly viewed weapon, sees service at land and sea. The smaller allied air defense armament systems smaller than American troops are also quite capable, although they receive little attention. Their needs can be firmly met with smaller caliber armaments outside using a regular caliber M2 caliber machine mounted on top of a tank tower, because four "heavy-barrel" (M2HB) guns used on land are fitted together in America. Maxson's Maxmount weapon system (as a direct answer to Flakvierling), often installed behind half-tracks to form Half Track, M16 GMC, Anti-Aircraft. Despite the power of less than 20 German systems, the typical four or five combat batteries of the Army AAA battalions often spread several kilometers apart from each other, quickly attaching and releasing to larger ground combat units to provide a welcome defense of enemy aircraft.
AAA battalions are also used to help push ground targets. Their larger 90 mm M3 rifles will prove, like the eighty-eight, to make excellent anti-tank weapons as well, and are widely used at the end of the war in this role. Also available to Americans at the start of the war is the 120 mm diameter M1 gun stratosphere, which is the most powerful AA weapon with impressive 60,000 feet (18 km) altitude capability. No 120 M1 is never fired into enemy aircraft. Weapons 90 mm and 120 mm will continue to be used until the 1950s.
The United States Navy also put some thought into the problem, and came with a 1.1 "/75 (28mm) shotgun to replace the.50 inadequate caliber.This weapon has teeth problems that most new weapons have, but the problem with the gun never It was replaced by Bofors 40 mm wherever possible. A 5 "/38 caliber gun turned out to be an excellent anti-aircraft weapon, after the Proximity fuse has been refined.
The Germans built very large reinforced concrete beam houses, some more than six stories, known as the Hochbunker High Bunker or FlaktÃÆ'¼rme " > the bulletproof tower, where they place anti-aircraft artillery. Those in the towns attacked by Allied ground forces became fortresses. Some in Berlin were some of the last buildings that fell into the Soviets during the Battle of Berlin in 1945. The British buildings built structures like the Maunsell Forts in the North Sea, the Thames of the Thames, and other tidal areas that became the base of their weapons. After the war, most were left to rot. Some were outside the territorial waters, and had a second life in the 1960s as a platform for pirate radio stations, while others became the base of the micronation, the Sealand Empire.
Several countries started rocket research before World War II, including for anti-aircraft use. Further research began during the war. The first step is a directional missile system like RP 2 inch UK and 3 inches, which are fired in large quantities from battery Z , and also mounted on battleships. The firing of one of these devices during an airstrike was alleged to have caused the Bethnal Green disaster in 1943. Facing the threat of Japanese Kamikaze attacking the UK and the US developing a land-to-land rocket such as British Stooge or American Lark as counter measures, but none of them ready at the end of the war. German missile research is the most advanced of the war when Germany put a lot of effort into the research and development of rocket systems for all purposes. Among them are some guided and directed systems. The fascinating system involves Fliegerfaust (literally "boxing plane") as the first MANPADS. The guided system is some advanced radio, wire, or missile radar like Wasserfall rocket ("waterfall"). Due to the severe war situation for Germany, all such systems are produced only in small quantities and mostly only used by training units or congregations.
Another aspect of anti-aircraft defense is the use of balloons insistently to act as a physical barrier initially for bomber aircraft over the cities and then for ground attack aircraft over the Norman invasion fleet. Balloons, simple balloons tethered to the ground, work in two ways. First, the cables and steel cables are dangerous for any aircraft that tries to fly between them. Secondly, to avoid balloons, bombers must fly at higher altitudes, which is more advantageous for rifles. Balloon rollers are limited in their applications, and have little success in dropping aircraft, most of whose defense is immobile and passive.
The most sophisticated technology of its allies is exhibited by an anti-aircraft defense against German V-1 cruise missiles (V stands for V ergeltungswaffe , "weapons of revenge"). The Gun Battalion Anti-aircraft 419 and 601 US Army were first allocated to the Folkestone-Dover beach to defend London, and then moved to Belgium to be part of the coordinated "Antwerp X" project of Le Grand Veneur in Keerbergen. With the liberation of Antwerp, the port city soon became the highest priority target, and received the largest number of V-1 and V-2 missiles from any city. The smallest tactical unit of the operation was a weapon battery consisting of four 90 mm barrels equipped with radio fuses. Incoming targets were acquired and automatically tracked by SCR-584 radar, developed at MIT Rad Lab. The output of the gunfire radar is fed to the director of M-9, an electronic analog computer developed at Bell Laboratories to calculate the correction of lead and elevation for weapons. With the help of these three technologies, nearly 90% of the V-1 missiles, on track to the defense zone around the harbor, are destroyed.
Post-war
Postwar analysis shows that even with the latest anti-aircraft systems used by both parties, the majority of bombers reached their targets successfully, on the order of 90%. While these figures were undesirable during the war, the emergence of nuclear bombs greatly changed reception even a single bomber reached its target.
Developments during World War II continued for a short time into the post-war period as well. Specifically, the US Army established an enormous air defense network around larger cities based on radar guided by radar 90 mm and 120 mm. US efforts continued into the 1950s with a 75 mm Skysweeper system, an almost fully automated system including radar, computers, power and automatic loading rifles on one powerful platform. Skysweeper replaces all smaller weapons that are then used in the Army, especially the 40 mm Bofors. In 1955, the US military considered Bofors 40mm obsolete because of its reduced ability to shoot down jet-powered aircraft, and switched to the development of SAM, with Nike Ajax and RSD-58. In Europe, NATO's Allied Command Europe develops an integrated air defense system, NATO Air Defense Ground Environment (NADGE), which later became NATO's Integrated Air Defense System.
The introduction of guided missiles resulted in significant changes in the anti-aircraft strategy. Although Germany had been desperate to introduce an anti-aircraft missile system, none were operating during World War II. After several years of postwar development, the system began to mature into a viable weapon system. The US started up their defense using Nike Ajax missiles, and soon larger anti-aircraft weapons disappeared. The same thing happened in the Soviet Union after the introduction of their SA-2 Guideline system.
As this process continues, the missile finds itself used for more and more of the role previously filled by weapons. The first is the big guns, replaced with the same big missile system with much higher performance. Smaller missiles soon follow, eventually becoming small enough to be mounted on armored cars and tank chassis. It began replacing, or at least replacing, a rifle-based SPAAG system in the 1960s, and in the 1990s had replaced almost all such systems in the modern army. The human-portable missile, MANPAD as it is known today, was introduced in the 1960s and has replaced or even replaced the smallest weapons in most of the advanced forces.
In the 1982 Falklands War, the armed forces of Argentina deployed the latest western European weapons including the Oerlikon GDF-002 35 mm twin cannon and SAM Roland. The Rapier missile system is a primary GBAD system, used by British artillery and RAF regiments, some of the new FIM-92 Stinger used by British special forces. Both sides also use Blowpipe missiles. British naval missiles used include Sea Dart and Long Sea Slug's longer distance system, Sea Cat and the new Sea Wolf short-range system. AA machine gun mounting is used both on land and afloat.
During the 2008 airstrike of South Ossetia's air force was confronted with a strong SAM system, such as the 1980s Buk-M1.
AA war system
Although firearms used by infantry, especially machine guns, can be used to engage low-altitude air targets, sometimes with noticeable success, their effectiveness is generally limited and blinking muzzles indicate infantry positions. The speed and altitude of modern jet planes limits target opportunities, and important systems can be superimposed on planes designed for ground attack roles. The adaptation of standard autocannon, originally intended for use from air to ground, and heavier artillery systems are commonly used for anti-aircraft guns, starting with standard pieces on new installations, and evolving into specially designed weapons with much higher performance before World War II.
Ammunition and shells fired by these weapons are usually equipped with various types of fuses (barometric, time delay, or proximity) to explode close to the air targets, releasing a quick metal spatter. For short-range jobs, light weapons with higher fire rates are required, to increase the hit probability on fast air targets. Weapons between 20 mm and 40 mm caliber have been widely used in this role. Smaller weapons, usually. Caliber or even 8 mm caliber rifles have been used on the smallest mounts.
Unlike heavier weapons, these smaller weapons are widely used because of their low cost and the ability to follow targets quickly. The classic example of autocannons and large caliber weapons is the 40 mm autocannon and FlaK 18, 36.8 cm, both designed by Bofors of Sweden. These artillery weapons have largely been replaced by effective surface-to-air missile systems that were introduced in the 1950s, though still retained by many countries. The development of surface-to-air missiles began in Nazi Germany during World War II with missiles such as Wasserfall, although no work system was deployed before the war ended, and represented a renewed effort to improve the effectiveness of the anti-aircraft system. confronted with the growing threat of the bomber. Ground-based SAMs can be deployed from fixed installations or mobile launchers, either wheeled or tracked. Traced vehicles are usually armored vehicles specially designed to carry the SAM.
Larger SAMs can be used in fixed launchers, but can be drawn/redistributed as desired. SAM launched by individuals known in the United States as Man - P ortable A ir D efence S ystems (MANPADS). MANPADS from the former Soviet Union have been exported throughout the World, and can be found used by many armed forces. Targets for non-ManPAD SAM will usually be obtained by air search radar, then tracked before/while SAM is "locked" and then activated. Potential targets, if they are military planes, will be identified as friends or enemies before being involved. Developments in short-run and relatively inexpensive short-range missiles have begun to replace autocannons in this role.
The interceptor (or simply interceptor) is a type of fighter specially designed to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft, especially bombers, usually relying on high speed and elevation capabilities. A number of jet interceptors such as the F-102 Delta Dagger, the F-106 Delta Dart, and the MiG-25 were built in the period beginning after the end of World War II and ended in the late 1960s, when they became less important because of the shift in the role of strategic bombing to the ICBM. It is always kind of differentiated from other fighter designs with higher speed and shorter operating range, as well as a lot of reduced armament loadings.
The radar system uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of the aircraft and weather formations to provide warnings and tactical and operational directions, especially during defensive operations. In their functional roles, they provide targeted search, threats, guidance, reconnaissance, navigation, instrumentation, and weather reporting support for combat operations.
Anti-UAV defenses
An Anti-UAV Defense System (AUDS) is a system for defense against unmanned aerial vehicles. Various designs have been developed, using lasers, net-guns and air-to-air nets, jamming signals, and hi-jacking by way of in-flight hacking. Anti-UAV defense systems have been deployed against ISIL unmanned aircraft during the Battle of Mosul (2016-17).
Alternative approaches to dealing with UAVs include using a shotgun at close range, and for smaller drones, training the eagle to snatch it out of the air.
Further developments
Weapons are increasingly being pushed into specialist roles, such as the Dutch Goalkeeper CIWS, which uses a 30-mm seven-barrel Gatling GAU-8 Avenger seven-barrel for last ditch anti-missile and anti-aircraft defense. Even these front-line weapons were previously replaced by new missile systems, such as the RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile, which is smaller, faster, and allows middle-class correction (guidance) to ensure blows. To bridge the gap between weapons and missiles, Russia specifically produces Kashtan CIWS, which uses weapons and missiles for final defenses. Two Gatling guns six-barrel Gsh-6-30 six-barrel and 9M311 surface-to-air missiles provide his defensive abilities.
Reminding this development to an all-missile system is the current step into a stealth aircraft. Long-range missiles rely on remote detection to provide significant clues. The stealth design cuts down the detection range so the plane is often never seen, and when it is, it is often too late to cut. The system for detecting and tracking stealth aircraft is a major problem for anti-aircraft development.
However, as stealth technology grows, so does anti-stealth technology. Some transmitting radars such as bistatic radar and low-frequency radar are said to have the ability to detect stealth aircraft. The advanced form of thermographic cameras like those that incorporate QWIPs will be able to optically view Stealth aircraft regardless of RCS aircraft. In addition, side-by-side radar, high-powered optical satellites, and sky scanning, high-aperture, high-sensitivity radar such as radio telescopes, will all be able to narrow the stealth aircraft locations below certain parameters. The latest SAM has the ability to be claimed to be able to detect and involve stealth targets, with the most famous being the S-400, which is claimed to be able to detect targets with 0.05 meter RCS squares from 90 km away.
Another potential weapon system for anti-aircraft use is laser. Although air planners have envisioned lasers in combat since the late 1960s, only the most modern laser systems currently achieve what can be considered "experimental uses". Especially Tactical High Energy Lasers can be used in anti-aircraft and anti-missile roles.
The future of projectile-based weapons can be found in railgun. Currently testing is underway to develop systems that can create a lot of damage such as Tomahawk (missiles), but at a fraction of the cost. In February 2008, the US Navy tested a railgun; it fired a bullet at 5,600 miles (9,000 km) per hour using 10 megajoules of energy. The expected performance is over 13,000 miles (21,000 km) per hour snout speed, accurate enough to reach a target of 5 meters of 200 nautical miles (370 km) while shooting at 10 shots per minute. It is expected to be ready by 2020 until 2025. This system, while currently designed for static targets, will only require the ability to be re-targeted to become the next generation AA system.
Strength Strength
Most Western and Commonwealth military integrate pure air defense with traditional service, military (ie army, navy and air force), as separate arm or as part of artillery. In the British Army for example, air defense was part of the artillery arm, while in the Pakistani Army, it was separated from Artillery to form its own separate arm in 1990. This is in contrast to some (mostly communist or ex-communist) nations where there is not only provision for air defense in the army, navy and air forces but there are certain branches that only handle air defense of the region, for example, Soviet Strany PVO. The Soviet Union also has a separate strategic rocket force that is responsible for nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles.
Smaller ships and vessels typically have machine guns or fast guns, which often turn off low-flying aircraft when connected to a radar-directed radar-controlled fire-control system for point defense. Some ships such as the Aegis cruisers are also a threat to aircraft as a ground-based air defense system. In general, naval vessels should be treated with respect by aircraft, but otherwise equally true. The carrier battle groups are well defended, as they usually consist of not only a lot of ships with heavy air defense weapons but they are also capable of launching fighter jets for air combat head patrols to intercept the incoming air threats.
Countries such as Japan use their SAM-equipped vessels to create external air defense perimeters and radar pickets in the defense of its Home islands, and the United States also uses Aegis-equipped ships as part of its Aegis Ballistic Defense Defense System in defense United States of America Continental.
Some modern submarines, such as Type 212 German Navy submarines, are equipped with surface-to-air missile systems, as helicopters and anti-submarine warplanes are a significant threat. Underground launch anti-air missile was first addressed by US Navy Admiral Charles B. Momsen, in a 1953 article.
Air Defense layered
Air defense in naval tactics, especially in carrier groups, is often built around a concentric coating system with aircraft carriers at the center. The outer layer will usually be provided by the aircraft carrier, in particular the AEW & amp; C combined with CAP. If an attacker is able to penetrate this layer, the next layer will come from a surface-to-air missile carried by the carrier escort; defense-area missiles, such as the RIM-67 Standard, with range up to 100Ã, nmi, and point-defense missiles, such as the RIM-162 ESSM, with a range up to 30Ã, nmi. Finally, almost every modern warship will be equipped with small caliber weapons, including CIWS, which is usually a radar-controlled Gatling gun between the 20mm and 30mm caliber that is capable of firing several thousand bullets per minute.
Army
Soldiers typically have deep air defenses, from MANPADS integrals such as RBS 70, Stinger and Igla to smaller power levels to military-level missile defense systems such as Angara and Patriot. Often, high-powered long-range missile systems force aircraft at low levels, where anti-aircraft weapons can knock them down. As well as small and large systems, for effective air defense there must be an intermediary system. It can be deployed at the regiment level and consists of a platoon of a moveable anti-aircraft platform
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments